A Disintegration of Culture from The Trail of Tears

    The Indian Removal Act of 1830, followed by the Trail of Tears, proved to be more than just an agreement of American settlement. The Act of 1830 would restrict Natives to uninhabitable land and truly bring to light the cruelty of their reality. Historian Andrew Denson helps to describe the aftermath of such injustice. “After the Trail of Tears, the town disappeared. The buildings decayed or were dismantled for their materials, and white Georgians took the land to plow and plant.” As the Native-Americans were getting their land slowly taken away from white settlers, they were forced to sign treaties and agreements to stop this forced exodus and made peace to be able to keep their peace. The Trail of Tears acts as a symbol for the exodus to lands in the west like Oklahoma. What is known is a devastating amount of death and diseases occurring during their migration out of their stolen lands. It is in the Trail of Tears and other forced migrations that numerous amounts of cultures began to die. While many suffered certain cultures, through the passing of traditions, would emerge from these catastrophic events and continue to be implemented to be significant in Native-American society today. Historians that have studied and analyzed Native-American cultures and the Trail of Tears have recorded the destruction of the Native-American people but do not touch upon the effects it has on today’s cultural practices. Recognizing the cultural components of Native-American society helps to open up new doors of understanding. This helps to view Native-American society through a different window; one that may obstruct certain views that are redundant and already known. Ultimately understanding the history behind cultural arts and symbols can bring to light views that no one has ever bothered to glance at. Although documentation of cultures is hard to find, the historical relevance of the few that exist offer a history that is “chronological and mundane, [as] it integrates the Creeks into a narrative of events already familiar…” This view on Native-American society offers a new mode of clarity and understanding, and helps to view American settlement and expansion through the lens of cultures that are affected, and, thus, the people that have been neglected. 

    To conclude this week, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 that resulted in the mass forced migration of thousands of Native-Americans into the western regions of the country, also known as the Trail of Tears, was legislation that caused far more than a massive exodus of a society. It resulted in the deaths of thousands of innocent people, an event with so much catastrophic impact, that it is still a matter of controversy today. Another result of this restrictive legislation was in the disintegration of a vibrant culture, which was shared by so many. I argue, then, that Native-American cultures emerge in today’s Native-American societies because of their diligence and triumph over colonial powers. Through their own journey, they prove to be of significance to society although their numbers are limited and their works are often seen as unique combination nature, creative expression and one’s own experiences. The voices of the Native-American’s were simply unheard and this resulted in a near extinction of their people. Albeit, their ancestor’s cries from oppression were unheard and lost, the shout for freedom and peace will continue to be heard through their modes of cultural expression.

Sources

Andrew Denson, “Remembering Cherokee Removal in Civil Rights-Era Georgia,” Southern Cultures 14/4 (Winter 2008): 90.

Claudio Saunt, “Telling Stories: The Political Uses of Myths and History in the Cherokee and Creek Nations,” The Journal of American History 93/3 (December 2006): 673.

A Cultural Analysis of Native American Culture of the 1800s

    Native-American culture is one that is so rich and vibrant that often times their culture becomes a symbol to represent what remains of their society. Their livelihood and existence is comprised of spiritual elements and, often, involve elements that are intangible and based off of belief and folklore. Vicki Rozema offers us true accounts from Native-Americans suffering through the Trail of Tears, and from this work we can all realize some of the horrors endured from one of the darkest times in American history. One of the Native-American voices that speaks from this time even says, “Our ancestors lived here—they enjoyed it as their own in peace—it was the gift of the Great Spirit to them and their children.” There is a certain ambiguity and mysticism in the culture that one cannot simply observe and learn; it is a way of live that must be lived and experienced to truly understand. To better understand Native-American life, David Minthorn reports about the process of creating tools for everyday life.“The old people who knew how, made what they called dirt pots and dirt bowls. To make them they took clay and formed it in the shape desired and turned these bowls over the fire and smoked them and when they were done they would hold water and were very useful.” As they view the world, in peace, love and harmony, living frugally and with humility, it is in this unique atmosphere that creative arts and cultures would come to life.

    The analysis of basket-weaving, although it may have little significance as evidence in history compared to its richness in arts, can still help identify and better understand, not only the cultures of Native-American lives, but the lives that these Native-Americans lived. “Woven from grasses and reeds, roots, tree bark, and other natural fibers, baskets served tribal societies as a way to transport and store goods and game, carry infants, and cook and serve meals. They were used in sacred rites and as gifts and heirlooms.” That statement alone, helps to understand Native-American life through the many components of their cultures. The beauty in their tools and technology is that it serves many purposes, maximizing practicality, resource utilization and implementing aesthetic features to reflect their creative expression. Basket-weaving, a tradition that began for its practical use for thousands of years, is still significant in Native-American societies today and is more commonly used as decorative pieces because of the intricate beauty and process needed to create each piece. The importance of basket-weaving, as a mode of culture, is the reflection of a tradition that has been passed on. It reflects the “traditional” way-of-life that Indians live and the importance of these traditions in everyday life. It, also, helps us to realize the life we could be living if not for early American expansion and the impact of early American-Indian relations within this nation.

Sources

David Minthorn, “Each Basket Tells a Rich and Many-Textured Story,” The Record (October 2003): 31.

Michael Morris, “Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 91/4 (2007): 422.

Vicki Rozema, Voices from the Trail of Tears (Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair Publisher, 2003), 3.

The Indian Removal Act 1830 and its Impact on Native American Culture

    Native-American culture is something that I will always be fascinated by. For history’s sake, I wanted to address American legislation, regarding the removal of Native-Americans, under President Andrew Jackson between the years of 1820-1840. The major conflicts that would arise result in the occupation of land and who was to reside in it. It is within this conflict between American settlers, looking in the interest of expansion, and Indians, already occupying the rich lands, that a brutal demolition of Native cultures would occur. Through the analysis of Native-American cultures, including basket-weaving, story-telling and other modes of the arts, ideas of American settlers and their expansion take on a whole new meaning; one that includes empathy and a whole new perception of what our nation’s history. As I approach this topic through the lens of cultural history, I look to find a clearer understanding of the Native-American cultures that once overwhelmed our nation. I want to find how colonial powers have impacted these cultures to the point of near extinction. The rest of this post focuses on the era of the Trail of Tears, and analyzes the destruction of Native cultures. The Indian Removal Act, in the interest of replacing Indian lands for American settlements and with a total disregard for Native Indian people, resulted in the destruction of the Native society. I argue, then, that Native-American societies, today, are impacted by the cultures and traditions that result from this devastating time period of American exclusion.  It may be in the reader’s interest to know that the bulk of the research done is based on the Native-Americans of the Cherokee nation, but certain references do include the other Native-American tribes forced out of region, like those of the Seminoles, Creek and Choctaw nations. 

   The Indian Removal Act of 1830, under the presidency of Andrew Jackson reveals more than just colonial relations with native peoples. According to historian Michael Morris, a contributor to the Georgia Historical Quarterly, “the event reveals much about period politics and society's views regarding a minority culture.” Jackson’s background and ideology of the “common American man” was the basis of his anti-Indian policies in politics. Jackson would argue that relocating the Native-Americans would be humane and that “the Southeastern Indians were not civilized enough to stay. Morris claims, "the key concept was to relocate them out west without any white settlements nearby.” The importance of these events is the neglect to view a single point-of-view from the Native-American people. “It cannot be expected, that the condition of a few tribes of secluded Indians should at once claim and secure the sympathies of millions.” As the Indian societies begin to be forced out or “relocated” they are to build their own self-sustainable political communities that President Jackson notes “it would be necessary for the United States to regulate these communities.”As the Treaty of New Echota was agreed upon, Cherokees of the region were to leave for the west and it is these years of forced migration that would become known as the Trail of Tears; a journey that many Indians were not fully prepared for resulting in deaths, diseases, malnutrition, dehydration, starvation, and exhaustion. It is in this context and with this understanding of the legislation at the time, that we can further understand the effects of this division and delve in deeper into the cultures that would be impacted by these events.

Sources

Michael Morris, “Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 91/4 (2007): 403-422.

“Removal of the Indians,” The North American Review 31/69 (October 1830): 396.  

Race and Racism - Part 4

     Through looking through different historians, writers and contributors I definitely learned a lot about myself. I love history but putting things in into the canvas of the "bigger picture" always has me understanding history better. Perhaps one of the most interesting articles I read was written by Kaveri Qureshi, who takes these ideas of politics, race, and class and show how these conflicts impact working lives in his in-depth look into male Pakistan working class life. Especially because I have recently been looking into my own health and wellness, seeing some history on how issues of politics and gender in different parts of the world have affected the body is one that I wanted to look more into. 
     Qureshi writes a gender history but links how class, race and politics are all involved and take shape in chronic illness and bodily deterioration in the working class. His analysis differs from other historians because he actually takes in personal accounts of Pakistan working men and conducts further research shown in his ethnography. The basis of Qureshi’s argument is through a transnational approach. Qureshi describes this as a" general assumption that migrants themselves prioritize transnationalism that allows its authors to present it as of greater importance than the labour process.” The link of capital and transnational is created as he describes a man named Yunus, whose “economic conditions substantially constrained his capacity to engage in transnationalism.” In this approach, Qureshi describes the importance of Pakistani transnationalism and its social effects that lead to discrimination, which in turn leads to physical deterioration. As the Pakistani working class becomes marginalized by further legislation restricting their migrations, they are further subjugated to harsh working conditions to pay for their transnational lifestyles. As work becomes less necessary for employers and a necessity of skill and trade sweeps the working class, questions of masculinity come into question during the times of unemployment. At the end of this cycle are these discriminatory repressions in the form immigration legislation that takes shape in physical bodily deterioration. Qureshi states that, “the hardships of the migration and labour process exacted a toll on the men’s bodies, which made the practice of transnationalism… more burdensome than we are led to believe.” This analysis goes on to show how the racial discrimination from the Commonwealth Immigration Acts, work its way into conflicts regarding class, race and politics, and can also lead to physical ailments.
     This ends my week wanting to know more, but I also want to get into different ideas that are a little closer to home. No history is more important than the other, which makes reading and writing about history so interesting. 

Sources

Kaveri Qureshi, “Pakistani Labor Migration and Masculinity: Industrial Working Life, The Body, and Transnationalism,” Global Networks 12/4 (2012): 486.   

Race and Racism - Part 3

    I wrote yesterday about two articles and realize that these two have taken approaches through the Marxian lens of base and superstructure. Other historians, like Paul Gilroy, have critiqued past approaches to legislation and even critique capital and the ideas of consumption. Gilroy argues “however, the more significant… is the critique of the economy of time and space which is identified with the world of work and wages from which blacks are excluded and from which they, as a result, announce and celebrate their exclusion.” This celebration is embodied in the culture of underground hip-hop, rap and lyrics, the musicality of reggae with its ‘ghetto’ components, and through other modes of expression. “(It) revels in the reduction of music to its essential African components of rhythm and voice.” It is through this expression that consumption is turned into a social process, one that turns itself into its own authentic public sphere, one that “may symbolize or even create community.” Gilroy takes the previous ideas of capitalism and take them into the realm of culture. He successfully indicates, through his ideology of cultures formed in the African diaspora, the involuntary participation that consumption has with the formation of cultures. Gilroy’s approach to critique capital helps to explain another dimension in this argument. He explains the formation of culture as mode of expressive celebration on their separation and exclusion from the workplace. As they become exploited by capitalists, they find a mode to express this repression in order to form a culture that has found significance even today.

    Randall Hansen takes a turn from class conflict and describes a political history of the Commonwealth Immigration Acts 1968, one of his points behind the legislation being, “a decline in both major parties’ commitment to the Commonwealth.” The racial issues involved come, blatantly, in the form of U.K citizens facing a racial restriction upon entering the U.K. “The part that had championed the Commonwealth ideal of racial equality and inter-racial co-operation… was on the verge of passing legislation denying the entry to British citizens because of the colour of their skin.” This change of heart, regarding racism and immigration control within the pro-Commonwealth party, shows the racism that was involved in political decisions. Hansen also describes the massive influx of Asians coming into Britain and the demand from the public that it be stopped. Through this analysis we can see that, the combination of political pressure, panic of increasing Asian immigration numbers, and commitment failures to Commonwealth equality values, resulted in racial discrimination took form in the Commonwealth Immigrants Act of 1968.

Sources

Paul Gilroy, “There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack”: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 210.

Randall Hansen, “The Kenyan Asians, British Politics and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1968,” Historical Journal 42/3 (1999): 809.

Race and Racism - Part 2

    M.D.A Freeman and Sarah Spencer, in Immigration Control, Black Workers and the Economy is an analysis spearheaded by material conditions with a Marxian lens. It describes immigration control and its economic basis and does so by explaining the impact of black workers to capital. Three of the major pieces of legislation regarding immigration control in this period are mentioned to help show the connection that racism has with British immigration legislation, the British Nationality Act 1948, the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968. To define in broad terms, the legislation in 1948 was passed after World War II and granted British citizenship for all citizens of the United Kingdom or any of its colonies. The legislation in 1962 and 1968 had different motives; laws to tighten the regulations on immigration, requiring those entering the United Kingdom to have a government-issued work voucher, or trying to get immigrant settlers to be immigrant contract workers. The major difference in the two were of the groups classified as citizens, the former regarding Commonwealth citizens, defined as British citizens from the legislation of 1948, and the latter regarding British citizens in colonies owned by the British that were excluded from the legislation of 1962. “’Numbers’ became the name of the game; questions of human rights became very secondary considerations.” This statement, by Freeman and Spencer, epitomizes the racial discrimination underlying the legislation and its execution, describing the issues that would arise in the interest of capital and economic stability. A social division is created in this, now, “number’s” control because, those that see these increasing black numbers as a burden, to economy and society, set their goal to reduce black migration into the U.K. This division becomes directly related to race, in that it becomes a conflict of white and black; an impact to race relations that stem from legislation regarding immigration control in the interest of economic stability. 

    Lydia Lindsey builds off of this Marxist tradition but describes racial antagonisms as coming from a conflict of multiple elements, and “challenges the idea that racial antagonism is created only by the capitalist class.” These multiple elements were embodied in her approach of the split-labor phenomenon; one that finds the racial divisions produced from a conflict of interests between the exploitative capitalists, higher-paid white labor, and exploited cheap black labor. It is in this connection of class and race that Lindsey describes the West-Indian workers marginalization in the working class. The restrictive legislation, that “controlled the influx of black workers and relegated them to the status of contract laborers,” would divide the working class into two uneven groups, according to the split-labor approach; one being the higher paid white worker and the other being the marginalized West Indian worker. As she basis her argument off of Freeman and Spencer’s connection of black workers to capital, she directs her approach to the racial divisions that occur because of the class division. What we find is that these class divisions are a direct result of the immigration control during this period.

Sources

M.D.A Freeman and Sarah Spencer, “Immigraton Control, Black Workers and the Economy, British Journal of Law and Society 6/1 (1979): 53.

Lydia Lindsey, “The Split-Labor Phenomenon: Its Impact on West Indian Workers as a Marginal Working Class in Birmingham, England, 1948-1962,” Journal of Negro History 78/2 (1993): 84.

Race and Racism - Part 1

    History and society is developed so much around the injustices of race and racism that I, to this day, can not help to feel moved from those who were brave enough to stand up against it. I recently fell into a story of Barack Obama revisiting the site of the Selma, Alabama march on its 50th anniversary, honoring those that were apart of the march. To know there were men and women "doing something about it", makes me really wonder about my own character in today's seemingly inactive society. We can never fully know what social issues are truly hurting our society, and for a society that talks a bigger game than it walks, one can see how inactivity leads to normalcy. Even if we were to realize there was something really wrong, would we do something about it? Would we stand up and march, or sit in and protest? I distinguish between race and racism because there is and has been so much pain and anguish caused from the injustices of this social construct that this pain and anguish truly deserves its own historical heading. While there has been much racism stemming from our own American soil, we must often also remember that it extends far from just  an issue on U.S soil. Racism exists everywhere because greed and exploitation exists everywhere.

    British legislation regarding immigration control in 1948-1968 was passed to regulate economic stability by regulating foreign labor numbers, a task that would inadvertently include racial antagonism within its economic conflicts. Historians, such as M.D.A Freeman and Sarah Spencer, have written on the basis of British immigration control through the lens of Marxian radical thought and look to understand the foundation of immigration control “in terms of the material conditions of society.” Historians, like Lydia Lindsey, follow this ideology of immigration control through the analysis of class struggle and its racial ties, describing race as being synonymous with class because of the society’s class structure. Paul Gilroy extends the topic into the realm of culture in his critique of capitalism and its involuntary involvement in the formation of an expressive culture, one that finds significance today. Other historians have built off of this ideology but have analyzed its effects upon the society through different modes of history. For example, Randall Hansen describes the politics behind the legislation process of the time and the racist sentiment that would be intertwined in the intricate fibers of society, economy, and politics. Kaveri Qureshi comments on the social effects of immigration legislation through a transnational approach in his more in-depth ethnography of chronic illness, more generally bodily deterioration, really highlighting the idea that racism has linked to certain people living less.

    I have read about Jim Crow laws and the abhorrent racism that was so prevalent in U.S history, but know I have only barely scratched the surface of understanding. I didn't even think about Britain, and the racism that exists there, or in every other country. I want to write more but I know I have to read more to know more. Sucks that I will never know enough.

Sources

Freeman, M.D.A, and Sarah Spencer. “Immigraton Control, Black Workers and the Economy.” British Journal of Law and Society 6/1 (1979): 53-81.

Gilroy, Paul. “There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack”: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.

Hansen, Randall. “The Kenyan Asians, British Politics and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1968.” Historical Journal 42/3 (1999): 809-834.

Lindsey, Lydia. “The Split-Labor Phenomenon: Its Impact on West Indian Workers as a Marginal Working Class in Birmingham, England, 1948-1962.” Journal of Negro History 78/2 (1993): 83-109.

Qureshi, Kaveri. “Pakistani Labor Migration and Masculinity: Industrial Working Life, The Body, and Transnationalism.” Global Networks 12/4 (2012): 485-504.

A Marxist Historical Perspective

   The Marxist historical perspective determines society as being materially-driven, and it is this materialist way of life that influences both the society and the economy. Christopher Hill’s article, “John Bunyan and His Publics,” describes the life of writer John Bunyan and his experiences through the times of England’s early political turmoil between the King and the Parliament. This article represents a Marxist historical perspective because it delves into the miseries of this exploitative society by describing the inequalities between the classes within the society. This article also successfully represents a Marxist historical perspective in that it is written through the perspective of a writer born a proletariat in society. It is written by a writer who endured years of jail for his vocation, one rooted in equality. 

    In Hill’s article, Hill writes of Bunyan’s experiences through the restoration period and its objective to eliminate certain freedoms through different means. One of the main ways involved a restriction on interfering in politics, an upright ban on lower class workers to preach and a resurrection of censorship. “One object of the restoration was indeed to prevent common people presuming to interfere in politics. Another object was to stop tinkers and other craftsmen preaching.” The writer, Hill, writes of the English class society and the inequalities and miseries involved with the implementation of the restoration. He uses the words “common people”, “tinkers”, and “craftsmen” implying the existence of different classes at the time and the implication of a society already in the making of industrial capitalism. In reference to Marx’s Wage Labour and Capital, Marx writes that the division of labor causes the workers to ultimately be identified in relation to their means of subsistence, which is evident here. Hill also writes of Bunyan’s personal experience of class inequality by writing of Bunyan choosing gaol, or jail, for multiple years instead of giving up his “God-given vocation,” an act forced upon by the gentry. In The German Ideology, Marx states that consciousness is a social product, and would argue that it is Bunyan’s “consciousness” that leads him to his decision and this consciousness would exist so as long as he exists. Hill admires Bunyan’s toughness for enduring such misery and puts the proletariat hero on a pedestal for his allegiance to living with dignity and honor. 

    This existence of English capitalist society affected Bunyan early in his life, starting from his father, who is described by Hill in the beginning of the text. Hill describes Bunyan and his father as “…illiterate, and he himself had little formal education.” Hill describes Bunyan’s upbringings in the proletariat class and sets the tone of the article by choosing a point of view from the very beginning. This class struggle would influence Bunyan’s later works like his parable of Dives and Lazarus. Hill sides with the proletariat and almost condemns the upper gentry class by stating that “God’s own are most commonly of the poorer sort…” It was these types of writings that were censored in the times of the restoration period in England. Simply by the fact that he was a “have-not” in society his writings were unable to publish, which ultimately caused him to put out his publications illegally. 

    To conclude, Hill’s article represents a Marxist historical perspective because it sheds light into the misery of the capitalist society by displaying different experiences of injustice that John Bunyan lived through in a world of class. Bunyan’s writings were heavily class-conscious and because of these writings he underwent several injustices within the class system. This is again seen in the censorship and the restrictions on the common man’s voice within the government. Hill successfully represents this historical perspective and writes for a virtue that all societies should ultimately strive for, some damn equality.

Christopher Hill, “John Bunyan and His Publics,” History Today 38/10 (1988): 13-19.

Cricket: A Reflection of Subaltern Studies

   Some of the most dynamic experiences to ever be a part of history is in sports, a category so rich in past cultures that it has altered the course of their respective history. This is profoundly evident within the territories that are and have been politically involved with the British in South Asia, more specifically India. It is the sport of cricket that “can provide valuable insights into the history of modern India, in particular… those of race, caste, and religion” and it is the realm of sports, both its history and its culture, which shows its legacy as a reflection of the field of subaltern history. These reflections are shown in the evolution and formation of cricket on a national scale and the implication of British rule among the racial, class-related, and religious conflicts that arise from the expansion of cricket. 

    To explain cricket as a reflection of subaltern history, it is important to understand the context of term “subaltern”. The term “refers to subordination in terms of class, caste, gender, race, language and culture and was used to signify the centrality of dominant/dominated relationships in history,” which in this case fits the mold of the relationship between British imperial rule and the subordinated South Asian colony.

    One of the early conflicts that arose in the evolution of cricket was a dispute over land; to be able to play on the grounds of Esplanade, an ideal turf for cricket play. It was a racial conflict involving a half a dozen European polo players and hundreds of native Indian cricket players; both groups would petition to higher authorities to play their respective sports. At first, the native cricketers were permitted the Esplanade grounds to play cricket, but the polo players would later get government permission to again play their turf-ruining polo. The conflict resolves when a new governor finally decides on a new spacious ground racially divided for, the Parsi, Hindu and Islam cricketers to play. This issue reflects the evolution of cricket as subaltern history, in a sense that it shows the influence that British rule has among colonial India, in terms of race. As the interest of cricket grew among the South Asian society, along with the sport’s evolution, its place of expansion was ultimately determined and controlled by British government.

   An example of caste-related issues among the evolution of cricket is represented in Palwankar Baloo, a lower ranked member of social, or in this case an “Untouchable”. In cricket, the captain plays a vital role and represents as the head of the team, and issues of caste surface because of the choosing of the captain. In Baloo’s case he is experienced and recognized even by other British cricketers, but is denied captainship because of his social status of Untouchable. It is these types of British implications among the society that reflect subaltern history as a relationship between the dominant and the dominated.
    In conclusion, the evolution of cricket is one that was heavily influenced by the politics of British imperial rule among colonial India and is a legacy that is interwoven with British colonialism. Conflicts of race, class and religion surfaced within the national expansion of cricket and its evolution has been subject to British politics. The racial disputes over grounds to play sports on, and caste issues in the choosing of positions within the sport of cricket, are two examples shown in Guha’s article that reflect the field of subaltern history. The importance of this analysis is that it helps us to remember that there are many reasons as to why things happen the way they do, and unless you read, research, and empathize with your subject you will never learn to truly understand it.

Sources

Ramachandra Guha, “Cricket and Politics in Colonial India,” Past and Present no.161 (November 1998): 157.

Gyan Prakash, “Subaltern Studies as Postcolonial Criticism,” American Historical Review 99/5 (December 1994): 1477.

Traditional Hindu Mores in Contemporary Society

    Hinduism, in brief, is a compilation of beliefs that extends its influence across over a billion followers. Not only is it characterized by a rich history, it also proves to include significant social components embodied in religious traditions that look to bring individuals together, strengthen religious zeal and even explain different facets of life. It is no question that the influence and impact of Hinduism even extends into Western society, as the concept of karma, a Hindu construct, even reaches mainstream popularity among even the non-religious following. Being that Hinduism evolves from the great depths of rich Indian and South Asian history, and also acknowledges divine beings within its practice, a high degree of reverence is most often displayed by individuals. This even extends to the places of worship, the temples, in which many devotees and tourists look to admire their own respective divine beings. Within this religious atmosphere traditional Hindu mores considering appropriate dress and attire are found.

    To properly encourage individuals to keep these holy areas sanctified, recent actions extending from the Madras high court enforces a dress code to help to keep the dignity and integrity of the temples and religious areas. Famed Indian historian, D.R. SarDesai, explains traditional, acceptable garment wear as one of“traditional or regional dress, [with] most urbanite young females and college coeds sporting salwar and a khameez.” The main piece of legislation enforcing the dress code is mainly derived from the existing Tami Nadu Temple Entry Authorization Act of 1947, permitting each temple to enforce its own dress codes dependent on local customs and traditions. The recent news coverage explains that “the court’s order was not in consonance with the existing Tamil Nadu Temple Entry Authorization Act of 1947.” Ultimately, a suspension on the court order was delivered to hold the bans on contemporary clothing within these religious sectors. While the many temples are continuing to absolve the situation at hand, what the world experiences is the high level of importance that is placed on keeping the integrity of Hindu beliefs. Hindu mores and customs extend far back in history, and appropriately presenting oneself to the divine beings of the religion is necessary to properly preserve its sanctity and integrity.

    After reading and writing about certain social issues sometimes I really don't know where I stand. On the one hand, it is very obvious for me to agree that a certain level of respect should be shown to religious elements that are held so dear to so many in the world. But on the other hand, how can I agree with legislation dated so far as back as the 1940's? Should there be no amendments to adhere to the new ways of society? To that I say, we all agree respect should be shown, but it seems society disagrees on whether certain things, like wearing jeans in a temple, is disrespectful or not. The beauty in the Tami Nadu Temple Entry Authorization Act of 1947, is that it isn't solely a law demanding an action. It is a law that leaves it up to each temple to enforce a code. And if the temple you want to visit feels a certain garment shows a higher sign of respect, then so be it. At the end of it all, are we trying to prove our own point, or to show respect and admiration and to be one with the spirit that guides us.

Sources

SarDesai, D.R. India: The Definitive History. Colorado: Westview Press, 2008.

Sivarajah, Padmini. “Madras High Court Stays Dress Code at Tamil Nadu Temples.” The Times of India. January 11, 2016.

Filipino Nationalism after the 18th Century

“Throughout Southeast Asia the impact of colonial rule after c.1800 was fundamentally the same, and so were the responses to it. In each country the local people suffered discrimination and exploitation, and in each place they rose up as one nation to throw off Western rulers.”

    Western colonial rule among the countries of Southeast Asia after the 18^th century resulted in a wave of nationalism that swept the region, developing the different nations to help shape their own national identities. This rigid dichotomy between colonialism and nationalism is the highlighted theme of this essay, and it is in this framework that this essay will help analyze the Philippines and its nationalistic response to colonial regimes after the 18^th century. The two powerful colonial regimes that the Filipinos urged freedom from were of early Spanish rule and later of U.S colonial rule. Albeit, these two colonial powers had different motives for colonizing Filipino territory, the exploitation and discrimination faced by that of the Filipino people helped to bring about a new sense of national consciousness and ultimately, a new national identity. After reading an old university book on Southeast Asian history, assigned by one of my professors I wanted to jot down some ideas that I thought could give me a more concrete foundation to really understand this specific region's early history. I argue that the rise of Filipino nationalism was due to Western expansion and started with the new ideologies that came with this expansion. I also argue that Filipino resistance emerged not solely to oppose the exploitation and discrimination, but as a sign of rejection toward new Western capital, immigration policy, technology, and etc. that disrupted their rural economy and way of life. The relationship between colonialism and nationalism, the oppressors and the oppressed, and the haves and the have-nots is one that the people of the Philippines have been a part of for centuries, and the rich culture that has emerged is a direct result.

    To begin this discussion, one must understand the term nationalism which is loosely described by D.R. SarDesai as being “fostered by common characteristics such as language, territory, religion, race and heritage... [and] engendered by literature, arts, and institutions.” As different interpretations of the term nationalism are used, this definition helps in better understanding Filipino nationalism within this era. Early Spanish rule was easily attainable because early Filipino barangay, or boat communities, lacked a common language and a strong historical tradition. They were also easily influenced as a result of “[Spanish] friars constantly telling them how intellectually inferior they were…” The Spanish were considered to be the global powerhouse at the time, which made it that much easier to prove dominance and dominion over Southeast Asian regions. But by the late 19^th century, as nationalism would flourish in the Philippines, Western influences would bring about new knowledge, ideologies, and educational institutions that would result in creating a national consciousness. 

    New ideas and schools of thought were shared in the mid-1800's when free trade policies were enacted by the Spanish ruling in the Philippines. As the Philippines began to open ports, interact with Western powers, and exchange for Western capital, the economy of the Philippines would change, resulting in a rising liberal elite class that sought higher education overseas. As the Spanish would exploit Filipino resources in order to attain riches from global trade, large numbers of Filipino youth would begin to experience the freedoms from lands overseas. This influential generation of youth would ultimately be at the forefront of nationalism against the colonial rule of the Spanish, just as Jose Rizal did in helping to create nationhood for the Filipino people. 

    As Emilio Aguinaldo would continue the fight for nationalism in the Philippines, the U.S would begin its intervention in colonizing the region. In the same way that the Western ideas helped develop new ideas such as self-government and the fundamental freedoms for Filipino nationalists, it was also these Western ideas that began the colonization of these Filipino people. The United States would enter the Philippines with ideas of Manifest Destiny but would also enter because of continuing economic struggles. As mentioned earlier, many factors are entangled within the subject of Filipino nationalism and one of those factors is the tricky web of capital and economy. Because countries circumventing the area of the Philippines generated over a billion dollars in purchased goods, security of the region was important for the United States and their goals of controlling Eastern commerce.

     Resistance to U.S colonial control took shape in militant revolutionary guerrillas that were supported by the Filipino people, and it is in the early 20^th century that a war would be fought between Filipino guerrillas and well-armed American soldiers. The United States even resorted to reconcentrado policies that resulted in the deaths of thousands of Filipino lives. Although it is impossible to know the real number of lives lost in this era of reconcentrado, it is estimated that over 600,000 died in these camps or in battle. Filipino nationalists fought for their independence and rejected U.S colonial rule, and many often died in their fight against oppression. It is only through America’s Great Depression that interests in the Philippines would diminish, eventually granting the nation independence in 1946. 

    In conclusion, Spanish and U.S colonialism in the Philippines heavily altered the politics, economy and society of Filipino life. This expansion into Southeast Asian territory offered a way into Eastern commerce and was a way to easily exploit a society and its resources. But in this era of colonial oppression, for example, controlling educational institutions or the reconcentrado policies used by the U.S, resistance to the oppression was just as evident. The Filipino nationalism movement was enacted through, both, non-violent approaches, such as Jose Rizal and his intellectual approach to create a national identity, and violent approaches, such as Filipino guerrilla warfare. The Philippines proved to be a battleground for colonialism and nationalism after the 18^th century. As they fought for full independence and obtained it in 1946, the Philippines proved through sheer relentless determination that they truly did rise up as one nation to throw off Western rulers.

Sources

SarDesai, D.R. Southeast Asia: Past and Present. Boulder: Westview Press, 2010.

SarDesai, D.R. Southeast Asian History: Essential Readings. Edited by D.R. SarDesai. Boulder:

     Westview Press, 2013

South Asia (An Introduction to What I Know)

    As a graduate with an emphasis in Asia and Asian history, it is often a struggle to get a good understanding of South Asia due to the lack of exposure to the region throughout most of my Asian history classes. With my minimal understanding of the region in Asia, I at least understand that there was a significant effect that resulted from the immense population of those inhabiting South Asia. Some significant effects can take the form of economic activity on a global scale, political struggle and strife affecting those further than the borders of South Asia, and a distinctive culture existing as a result of a deep history of economic, religious, social, cultural and political activity within the region. Very vague conceptions only highlighting the fact that I don't really know much.

    I vaguely understand some of the economic history of the region. I know that the Silk Road set the foundation for trade and South Asia’s importance in global trade. There lies significant tradeable goods such as spices, fabrics, art, etc. that helped countries such as India and other coastal countries to be significant players in the global economy. This fact is one that must not be taken lightly because my early understanding of this idea has helped me to better understand the region as a whole.

    I also understand that there is an intricate and distinctive culture stemming from the areas of South Asia. I still don’t know too much but do know that the belief/religious system in the areas of South Asia impact not just individuals on a great scale, but more importantly, impact South Asian society and society’s way of life. This religious system has stemmed out of the region early in history spreading to different countries thus spreading its beliefs and values eventually to the globe.

    I'm the worst with dates and I think as a History major that isn't a very positive trait. I hope the research I delve into gives me a better grasp of it all.