A Short Reflection on Communism

    Being a Korean-American in the United States, one of the questions some people tend to ask once they find out that I am Korean is, “Are you North or South?” For those that do not understand the severity of the situation, there exists so much political turmoil and government corruption, those that are lucky enough to escape the North Korean regime probably wouldn’t admit it out of pure fear. Also, I have to assume to those that ask that they must be curious because of the foreign ideas of a corrupt and exploitative, Communistic government that exists in North Korea. Communism has existed throughout different societies to try to equalize opportunities for all citizens of the government. The ideas of Communism are commonly argued for and argued against but trying to understand the actual effect of such rule really must be experienced rather than learned. The ineptitudes of these types of regimes becomes more and more apparent when contrasted with Western, more Democratic ideals. Upon reading the short story “The Elephant” by Slawomir Mrozek, Mrozek really helped to shine a light on some of the issues and concerns involving individual agency within Communism. Mrozek writes of the regime in Poland and provides insight on the relationship between those under the system and the state. Communism has definitely been adopted to be an all-encompassing solution to the trials and tribulations of Polish society, and the deception and corruption intertwined in its shortcomings are made apparent in this critique. 

    Slawomir Mrozek creates a deep, symbolic and fictional story to highlight deceptive and corruptive tactics used by a zoo director to save money for the zoo; these same tactics being analogous to Communist rule. The story is about the creation of a fallacious elephant, proposed by the central authority, that would increase popularity and profits for the zoo, but the essence of the story lies in the emptiness of such a grand scheme. Albeit, the elephant is created to be an awe-inspiring attraction for the zoo, just as Communism was to the Polish nation, execution of the act creates more of a controversial uproar than it does in attracting zoo attendance. The discussion of individual agency is seen in the two workers that are to create the elephant by adding air into a hollow rubber elephant. The workers symbolically relate to the working class portion of Communist rule and how they add to the corruption and manipulation of the government. Without even considering the morality of their actions, the two work reluctantly and even execute the corrupt practices themselves! The trickle-down effect almost characterizes perfectly the nature of Communist rule. On the one hand, the government not only imposes rule with corrupt practices but does so in accordance with his/her own goals. On the other hand, there lies a society that religiously followsany order from the “omnipotent” central authority, which one would think would result in a benefited society. What is actually apparent is the result of broken economies and societies in constant conflict with one another stemming from the corrupt decisions made by the state.

Sources

Mrozek, Slawomir. “The Elephant.” London: Penguin, 2010.

A Disintegration of Culture from The Trail of Tears

    The Indian Removal Act of 1830, followed by the Trail of Tears, proved to be more than just an agreement of American settlement. The Act of 1830 would restrict Natives to uninhabitable land and truly bring to light the cruelty of their reality. Historian Andrew Denson helps to describe the aftermath of such injustice. “After the Trail of Tears, the town disappeared. The buildings decayed or were dismantled for their materials, and white Georgians took the land to plow and plant.” As the Native-Americans were getting their land slowly taken away from white settlers, they were forced to sign treaties and agreements to stop this forced exodus and made peace to be able to keep their peace. The Trail of Tears acts as a symbol for the exodus to lands in the west like Oklahoma. What is known is a devastating amount of death and diseases occurring during their migration out of their stolen lands. It is in the Trail of Tears and other forced migrations that numerous amounts of cultures began to die. While many suffered certain cultures, through the passing of traditions, would emerge from these catastrophic events and continue to be implemented to be significant in Native-American society today. Historians that have studied and analyzed Native-American cultures and the Trail of Tears have recorded the destruction of the Native-American people but do not touch upon the effects it has on today’s cultural practices. Recognizing the cultural components of Native-American society helps to open up new doors of understanding. This helps to view Native-American society through a different window; one that may obstruct certain views that are redundant and already known. Ultimately understanding the history behind cultural arts and symbols can bring to light views that no one has ever bothered to glance at. Although documentation of cultures is hard to find, the historical relevance of the few that exist offer a history that is “chronological and mundane, [as] it integrates the Creeks into a narrative of events already familiar…” This view on Native-American society offers a new mode of clarity and understanding, and helps to view American settlement and expansion through the lens of cultures that are affected, and, thus, the people that have been neglected. 

    To conclude this week, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 that resulted in the mass forced migration of thousands of Native-Americans into the western regions of the country, also known as the Trail of Tears, was legislation that caused far more than a massive exodus of a society. It resulted in the deaths of thousands of innocent people, an event with so much catastrophic impact, that it is still a matter of controversy today. Another result of this restrictive legislation was in the disintegration of a vibrant culture, which was shared by so many. I argue, then, that Native-American cultures emerge in today’s Native-American societies because of their diligence and triumph over colonial powers. Through their own journey, they prove to be of significance to society although their numbers are limited and their works are often seen as unique combination nature, creative expression and one’s own experiences. The voices of the Native-American’s were simply unheard and this resulted in a near extinction of their people. Albeit, their ancestor’s cries from oppression were unheard and lost, the shout for freedom and peace will continue to be heard through their modes of cultural expression.

Sources

Andrew Denson, “Remembering Cherokee Removal in Civil Rights-Era Georgia,” Southern Cultures 14/4 (Winter 2008): 90.

Claudio Saunt, “Telling Stories: The Political Uses of Myths and History in the Cherokee and Creek Nations,” The Journal of American History 93/3 (December 2006): 673.

A Cultural Analysis of Native American Culture of the 1800s

    Native-American culture is one that is so rich and vibrant that often times their culture becomes a symbol to represent what remains of their society. Their livelihood and existence is comprised of spiritual elements and, often, involve elements that are intangible and based off of belief and folklore. Vicki Rozema offers us true accounts from Native-Americans suffering through the Trail of Tears, and from this work we can all realize some of the horrors endured from one of the darkest times in American history. One of the Native-American voices that speaks from this time even says, “Our ancestors lived here—they enjoyed it as their own in peace—it was the gift of the Great Spirit to them and their children.” There is a certain ambiguity and mysticism in the culture that one cannot simply observe and learn; it is a way of live that must be lived and experienced to truly understand. To better understand Native-American life, David Minthorn reports about the process of creating tools for everyday life.“The old people who knew how, made what they called dirt pots and dirt bowls. To make them they took clay and formed it in the shape desired and turned these bowls over the fire and smoked them and when they were done they would hold water and were very useful.” As they view the world, in peace, love and harmony, living frugally and with humility, it is in this unique atmosphere that creative arts and cultures would come to life.

    The analysis of basket-weaving, although it may have little significance as evidence in history compared to its richness in arts, can still help identify and better understand, not only the cultures of Native-American lives, but the lives that these Native-Americans lived. “Woven from grasses and reeds, roots, tree bark, and other natural fibers, baskets served tribal societies as a way to transport and store goods and game, carry infants, and cook and serve meals. They were used in sacred rites and as gifts and heirlooms.” That statement alone, helps to understand Native-American life through the many components of their cultures. The beauty in their tools and technology is that it serves many purposes, maximizing practicality, resource utilization and implementing aesthetic features to reflect their creative expression. Basket-weaving, a tradition that began for its practical use for thousands of years, is still significant in Native-American societies today and is more commonly used as decorative pieces because of the intricate beauty and process needed to create each piece. The importance of basket-weaving, as a mode of culture, is the reflection of a tradition that has been passed on. It reflects the “traditional” way-of-life that Indians live and the importance of these traditions in everyday life. It, also, helps us to realize the life we could be living if not for early American expansion and the impact of early American-Indian relations within this nation.

Sources

David Minthorn, “Each Basket Tells a Rich and Many-Textured Story,” The Record (October 2003): 31.

Michael Morris, “Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 91/4 (2007): 422.

Vicki Rozema, Voices from the Trail of Tears (Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair Publisher, 2003), 3.

The Indian Removal Act 1830 and its Impact on Native American Culture

    Native-American culture is something that I will always be fascinated by. For history’s sake, I wanted to address American legislation, regarding the removal of Native-Americans, under President Andrew Jackson between the years of 1820-1840. The major conflicts that would arise result in the occupation of land and who was to reside in it. It is within this conflict between American settlers, looking in the interest of expansion, and Indians, already occupying the rich lands, that a brutal demolition of Native cultures would occur. Through the analysis of Native-American cultures, including basket-weaving, story-telling and other modes of the arts, ideas of American settlers and their expansion take on a whole new meaning; one that includes empathy and a whole new perception of what our nation’s history. As I approach this topic through the lens of cultural history, I look to find a clearer understanding of the Native-American cultures that once overwhelmed our nation. I want to find how colonial powers have impacted these cultures to the point of near extinction. The rest of this post focuses on the era of the Trail of Tears, and analyzes the destruction of Native cultures. The Indian Removal Act, in the interest of replacing Indian lands for American settlements and with a total disregard for Native Indian people, resulted in the destruction of the Native society. I argue, then, that Native-American societies, today, are impacted by the cultures and traditions that result from this devastating time period of American exclusion.  It may be in the reader’s interest to know that the bulk of the research done is based on the Native-Americans of the Cherokee nation, but certain references do include the other Native-American tribes forced out of region, like those of the Seminoles, Creek and Choctaw nations. 

   The Indian Removal Act of 1830, under the presidency of Andrew Jackson reveals more than just colonial relations with native peoples. According to historian Michael Morris, a contributor to the Georgia Historical Quarterly, “the event reveals much about period politics and society's views regarding a minority culture.” Jackson’s background and ideology of the “common American man” was the basis of his anti-Indian policies in politics. Jackson would argue that relocating the Native-Americans would be humane and that “the Southeastern Indians were not civilized enough to stay. Morris claims, "the key concept was to relocate them out west without any white settlements nearby.” The importance of these events is the neglect to view a single point-of-view from the Native-American people. “It cannot be expected, that the condition of a few tribes of secluded Indians should at once claim and secure the sympathies of millions.” As the Indian societies begin to be forced out or “relocated” they are to build their own self-sustainable political communities that President Jackson notes “it would be necessary for the United States to regulate these communities.”As the Treaty of New Echota was agreed upon, Cherokees of the region were to leave for the west and it is these years of forced migration that would become known as the Trail of Tears; a journey that many Indians were not fully prepared for resulting in deaths, diseases, malnutrition, dehydration, starvation, and exhaustion. It is in this context and with this understanding of the legislation at the time, that we can further understand the effects of this division and delve in deeper into the cultures that would be impacted by these events.

Sources

Michael Morris, “Georgia and the Conversation over Indian Removal,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 91/4 (2007): 403-422.

“Removal of the Indians,” The North American Review 31/69 (October 1830): 396.  

Race and Racism - Part 4

     Through looking through different historians, writers and contributors I definitely learned a lot about myself. I love history but putting things in into the canvas of the "bigger picture" always has me understanding history better. Perhaps one of the most interesting articles I read was written by Kaveri Qureshi, who takes these ideas of politics, race, and class and show how these conflicts impact working lives in his in-depth look into male Pakistan working class life. Especially because I have recently been looking into my own health and wellness, seeing some history on how issues of politics and gender in different parts of the world have affected the body is one that I wanted to look more into. 
     Qureshi writes a gender history but links how class, race and politics are all involved and take shape in chronic illness and bodily deterioration in the working class. His analysis differs from other historians because he actually takes in personal accounts of Pakistan working men and conducts further research shown in his ethnography. The basis of Qureshi’s argument is through a transnational approach. Qureshi describes this as a" general assumption that migrants themselves prioritize transnationalism that allows its authors to present it as of greater importance than the labour process.” The link of capital and transnational is created as he describes a man named Yunus, whose “economic conditions substantially constrained his capacity to engage in transnationalism.” In this approach, Qureshi describes the importance of Pakistani transnationalism and its social effects that lead to discrimination, which in turn leads to physical deterioration. As the Pakistani working class becomes marginalized by further legislation restricting their migrations, they are further subjugated to harsh working conditions to pay for their transnational lifestyles. As work becomes less necessary for employers and a necessity of skill and trade sweeps the working class, questions of masculinity come into question during the times of unemployment. At the end of this cycle are these discriminatory repressions in the form immigration legislation that takes shape in physical bodily deterioration. Qureshi states that, “the hardships of the migration and labour process exacted a toll on the men’s bodies, which made the practice of transnationalism… more burdensome than we are led to believe.” This analysis goes on to show how the racial discrimination from the Commonwealth Immigration Acts, work its way into conflicts regarding class, race and politics, and can also lead to physical ailments.
     This ends my week wanting to know more, but I also want to get into different ideas that are a little closer to home. No history is more important than the other, which makes reading and writing about history so interesting. 

Sources

Kaveri Qureshi, “Pakistani Labor Migration and Masculinity: Industrial Working Life, The Body, and Transnationalism,” Global Networks 12/4 (2012): 486.   

Race and Racism - Part 3

    I wrote yesterday about two articles and realize that these two have taken approaches through the Marxian lens of base and superstructure. Other historians, like Paul Gilroy, have critiqued past approaches to legislation and even critique capital and the ideas of consumption. Gilroy argues “however, the more significant… is the critique of the economy of time and space which is identified with the world of work and wages from which blacks are excluded and from which they, as a result, announce and celebrate their exclusion.” This celebration is embodied in the culture of underground hip-hop, rap and lyrics, the musicality of reggae with its ‘ghetto’ components, and through other modes of expression. “(It) revels in the reduction of music to its essential African components of rhythm and voice.” It is through this expression that consumption is turned into a social process, one that turns itself into its own authentic public sphere, one that “may symbolize or even create community.” Gilroy takes the previous ideas of capitalism and take them into the realm of culture. He successfully indicates, through his ideology of cultures formed in the African diaspora, the involuntary participation that consumption has with the formation of cultures. Gilroy’s approach to critique capital helps to explain another dimension in this argument. He explains the formation of culture as mode of expressive celebration on their separation and exclusion from the workplace. As they become exploited by capitalists, they find a mode to express this repression in order to form a culture that has found significance even today.

    Randall Hansen takes a turn from class conflict and describes a political history of the Commonwealth Immigration Acts 1968, one of his points behind the legislation being, “a decline in both major parties’ commitment to the Commonwealth.” The racial issues involved come, blatantly, in the form of U.K citizens facing a racial restriction upon entering the U.K. “The part that had championed the Commonwealth ideal of racial equality and inter-racial co-operation… was on the verge of passing legislation denying the entry to British citizens because of the colour of their skin.” This change of heart, regarding racism and immigration control within the pro-Commonwealth party, shows the racism that was involved in political decisions. Hansen also describes the massive influx of Asians coming into Britain and the demand from the public that it be stopped. Through this analysis we can see that, the combination of political pressure, panic of increasing Asian immigration numbers, and commitment failures to Commonwealth equality values, resulted in racial discrimination took form in the Commonwealth Immigrants Act of 1968.

Sources

Paul Gilroy, “There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack”: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 210.

Randall Hansen, “The Kenyan Asians, British Politics and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act, 1968,” Historical Journal 42/3 (1999): 809.

Race and Racism - Part 2

    M.D.A Freeman and Sarah Spencer, in Immigration Control, Black Workers and the Economy is an analysis spearheaded by material conditions with a Marxian lens. It describes immigration control and its economic basis and does so by explaining the impact of black workers to capital. Three of the major pieces of legislation regarding immigration control in this period are mentioned to help show the connection that racism has with British immigration legislation, the British Nationality Act 1948, the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, and the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1968. To define in broad terms, the legislation in 1948 was passed after World War II and granted British citizenship for all citizens of the United Kingdom or any of its colonies. The legislation in 1962 and 1968 had different motives; laws to tighten the regulations on immigration, requiring those entering the United Kingdom to have a government-issued work voucher, or trying to get immigrant settlers to be immigrant contract workers. The major difference in the two were of the groups classified as citizens, the former regarding Commonwealth citizens, defined as British citizens from the legislation of 1948, and the latter regarding British citizens in colonies owned by the British that were excluded from the legislation of 1962. “’Numbers’ became the name of the game; questions of human rights became very secondary considerations.” This statement, by Freeman and Spencer, epitomizes the racial discrimination underlying the legislation and its execution, describing the issues that would arise in the interest of capital and economic stability. A social division is created in this, now, “number’s” control because, those that see these increasing black numbers as a burden, to economy and society, set their goal to reduce black migration into the U.K. This division becomes directly related to race, in that it becomes a conflict of white and black; an impact to race relations that stem from legislation regarding immigration control in the interest of economic stability. 

    Lydia Lindsey builds off of this Marxist tradition but describes racial antagonisms as coming from a conflict of multiple elements, and “challenges the idea that racial antagonism is created only by the capitalist class.” These multiple elements were embodied in her approach of the split-labor phenomenon; one that finds the racial divisions produced from a conflict of interests between the exploitative capitalists, higher-paid white labor, and exploited cheap black labor. It is in this connection of class and race that Lindsey describes the West-Indian workers marginalization in the working class. The restrictive legislation, that “controlled the influx of black workers and relegated them to the status of contract laborers,” would divide the working class into two uneven groups, according to the split-labor approach; one being the higher paid white worker and the other being the marginalized West Indian worker. As she basis her argument off of Freeman and Spencer’s connection of black workers to capital, she directs her approach to the racial divisions that occur because of the class division. What we find is that these class divisions are a direct result of the immigration control during this period.

Sources

M.D.A Freeman and Sarah Spencer, “Immigraton Control, Black Workers and the Economy, British Journal of Law and Society 6/1 (1979): 53.

Lydia Lindsey, “The Split-Labor Phenomenon: Its Impact on West Indian Workers as a Marginal Working Class in Birmingham, England, 1948-1962,” Journal of Negro History 78/2 (1993): 84.